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Acute and late radiation damage to the central nervous system (CNS) may lead to changes in motor function and behavior, or neurological disorders. Radiation and synergistic effects of radiation with other space flight factors may affect neural tissues, which in turn may lead to changes in function or behavior. Data specific to the spaceflight environment must be compiled to quantify the magnitude of this risk. If this is identified as a risk of high enough magnitude then appropriate protection strategies should be employed. – Human Research Program Requirements Document, HRP-47052, Rev. C, dated Jan 2009. A vigorous ground-based cellular and animal model research program will help quantify the risk to the CNS from space radiation exposure on future long distance space missions and promote the development of optimized countermeasures. Possible acute and late risks to the CNS from galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) and solar proton events (SPEs) are a documented concern for human exploration of our solar system. In the past, the risks to the CNS of adults who were exposed to low to moderate doses of ionizing radiation (0 to 2 Gy (Gray) (Gy = 100 rad)) have not been a major consideration. However, the heavy ion component of space radiation presents distinct biophysical challenges to cells and tissues as compared to the physical challenges that are presented by terrestrial forms of radiation. Soon after the discovery of cosmic rays, the concern for CNS risks originated with the prediction of the light flash phenomenon from single HZE nuclei traversals of the retina; this phenomenon was confirmed by the Apollo astronauts in 1970 and 1973. HZE nuclei are capable of producing a column of heavily damaged cells, or a microlesion, along their path through tissues, thereby raising concern over serious impacts on the CNS. In recent years, other concerns have arisen with the discovery of neurogenesis and its impact by HZE nuclei, which have been observed in experimental models of the CNS. Human epidemiology is used as a basis for risk estimation for cancer, acute radiation risks, and cataracts. This approach is not viable for estimating CNS risks from space radiation, however. At doses above a few Gy, detrimental CNS changes occur in humans who are treated with radiation (e.g., gamma rays and protons) for cancer. Treatment doses of 50 Gy are typical, which is well above the exposures in space even if a large SPE were to occur. Thus, of the four categories of space radiation risks (cancer, CNS, degenerative, and acute radiation syndromes), the CNS risk relies most extensively on experimental data with animals for its evidence base. Understanding and mitigating CNS risks requires a vigorous research program that will draw on the basic understanding that is gained from cellular and animal models, and on the development of approaches to extrapolate risks and the potential benefits of countermeasures for astronauts. Several experimental studies, which use heavy ion beams simulating space radiation, provide constructive evidence of the CNS risks from space radiation. First, exposure to HZE nuclei at low doses (<50 cGy) significantly induces neurocognitive deficits, such as learning and behavioral changes as well as operant reactions in the mouse and rat. Exposures to equal or higher doses of low-LET radiation (e.g., gamma or X rays) do not show similar effects. The threshold of performance deficit following exposure to HZE nuclei depends on both the physical characteristics of the particles, such as linear energy transfer (LET), and the animal age at exposure. A performance deficit has been shown to occur at doses that are similar to the ones that will occur on a Mars mission (<0.5 Gy). The neurocognitive deficits with the dopaminergic nervous system are similar to aging and appear to be unique to space radiation. Second, exposure to HZE disrupts neurogenesis in mice at low doses (<1 Gy), showing a significant dose-related reduction of new neurons and oligodendrocytes in the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the hippocampal dentate gyrus. Third, reactive oxygen species (ROS) in neuronal precursor cells arise following exposure to HZE nuclei and protons at low dose, and can persist for several months. Antioxidants and anti-inflammatory agents can possibly reduce these changes. Fourth, neuroinflammation arises from the CNS following exposure to HZE nuclei and protons. In addition, age-related genetic changes increase the sensitivity of the CNS to radiation. Research with animal models that are irradiated with HZE nuclei has shown that important changes to the CNS occur with the dose levels that are of concern to NASA. However, the significance of these results on the morbidity to astronauts has not been elucidated. One model of late tissue effects suggests that significant effects will occur at lower doses, but with increased latency. It is to be noted that the studies that have been conducted to date have been carried out with relatively small numbers of animals (<10 per dose group); therefore, testing of dose threshold effects at lower doses (< 0.5 Gy) has not been carried out sufficiently at this time. As the problem of extrapolating space radiation effects in animals to humans will be a challenge for space radiation research, such research could become limited by the population size that is used in animal studies. Furthermore, the role of dose protraction has not been studied to date. An approach to extrapolate existing observations to possible cognitive changes, performance degradation, or late CNS effects in astronauts has not been discovered. New approaches in systems biology offer an exciting tool to tackle this challenge. Recently, eight gaps were identified for projecting CNS risks. Research on new approaches to risk assessment may be needed to provide the necessary data and knowledge to develop risk projection models of the CNS from space radiation. ==Introduction== Both GCRs and SPEs are of concern for CNS risks. The major GCRs are composed of protons, α-particles, and particles of HZE nuclei with a broad energy spectra ranging from a few tens to above 10,000 MeV/u. In interplanetary space, GCR organ dose and dose-equivalent of more than 0.2 Gy or 0.6 Sv per year, respectively, are expected. The high energies of GCRs allow them to penetrate to hundreds of centimeters of any material, thus precluding radiation shielding as a plausible mitigation measure to GCR risks on the CNS. For SPEs, the possibility exists for an absorbed dose of over 1 Gy from an SPE if crew members are in a thinly shielded spacecraft or performing a spacewalk. The energies of SPEs, although substantial (tens to hundreds of MeV), do not preclude radiation shielding as a potential countermeasure. However, the costs of shielding may be high to protect against the largest events. The fluence of charged particles hitting the brain of an astronaut has been estimated several times in the past. One estimate is that during a 3-year mission to Mars at solar minimum (assuming the 1972 spectrum of GCR), 20 million out of 43 million hippocampus cells and 230 thousand out of 1.3 million thalamus cell nuclei will be directly hit by one or more particles with charge Z> 15. These numbers do not include the additional cell hits by energetic electrons (delta rays) that are produced along the track of HZE nuclei 〔 or correlated cellular damage. The contributions of delta rays from GCR and correlated cellular damage increase the number of damaged cells two- to three-fold from estimates of the primary track alone and present the possibility of heterogeneously damaged regions, respectively. The importance of such additional damage is poorly understood. At this time, the possible detrimental effects to an astronaut’s CNS from the HZE component of GCR have yet to be identified. This is largely due to the lack of a human epidemiological basis with which to estimate risks and the relatively small number of published experimental studies with animals. RBE factors are combined with human data to estimate cancer risks for low-LET radiation exposure. Since this approach is not possible for CNS risks, new approaches to risk estimation will be needed. Thus, biological research is required to establish risk levels and risk projection models and, if the risk levels are found to be significant, to design countermeasures. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Central nervous system effects from radiation exposure during spaceflight」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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